psychology of Education

Suhirno
292010507
FKIP – PGSD

Observations in primary schools
01-03-06 Ungaran

On Saturday, 31 March 2012 I was in elementary school observation Ungaran 01-03-06. I left early at 06.00 pm. The atmosphere was quite crowded schools, unlike other schools in general, because at 6:30 am has begun to enter the school, with the contents of the Koran, or Al-Qur’an Literacy before the lesson starts at 07.00 am. I took part in the Literacy of the Al-Qur’an, because I follow and teach the students in the Al-Qur’an.

Write Once Read Al-Quran is complete, teachers prepare lessons to be taught. It is the mathematics lesson. Before starting to prepare classroom lessons Chairman to pray and greet the teacher. The lesson begins promptly at 7:00 am.

At the beginning of the lesson, teacher records the arrival of students in attendance. Then the teacher asks Homework tasks at previous meetings that have been granted. The teacher checks each student’s work. The next teacher was discussing homework in front of the class. Student work is then assessed by the teacher.

Still on the subject of mathematics, the teacher then gave the task that still involves subject matter first. The teacher gave a talk about in front of the class and student records submitted by the teacher. Then the teacher gave 15 minutes to work on the problems of practice. When all the students completed the task. Teachers discuss the exercises, and student work is assessed. The teacher gives homework for the next meeting. Mathematics lessons were finished at 08.30 pm. Then proceed with the rest which is only 15 minutes.

I think watching the learning process in the Education Unit Level Curriculum Theory Constructivist Learning Theory supporters, because the theory behind the development of curriculum in mathematics curriculum Indonesia. Besides Piaget’s theory was influential in the creation of learning with the flow of cognitive developmental psychology.

The characteristics of the current mathematics education curriculum is developed based on specific competencies, centered on the child as a developer of knowledge, There is an emphasis on developing problem-solving skills, ability to think logically, critically, and creatively and the ability to communicate mathematics.

Conditions are very clean and well maintained school, classroom lighting is pretty good. Environment of the class at each school provided a place to wash hands. Each class has a distinct identity and the appropriate level of student creativity. Facilities and infrastructures are very conducive to learning and teaching time. At the time of the day, students wear uniforms Saturday scouts. Class, there are 20 men and 12 women.

 

Constructivist Learning

Constructivist is a learning process that explains how knowledge is organized in humans. Constructivist elements have long been practiced in the Siwak rank teaching and learning in schools, and universities but not so visible and are not emphasized. According to the understanding of the flow of constructivism, school science should not be transferred from teacher to pupil / students in a perfect form. Pupils need to be built on the knowledge according to their experience – each.

Constructivism in the context of learning is the result of the efforts of students and teachers themselves should not be learning to students in accordance with the principles of Student centered rather than teacher centered. Target block principle for school science is a scheme which is a mental activity that is used by students as a raw material for the reflection and abstaract in the thought process of children. Mind of the student will not face a reality that is tangible is isolated in the neighborhood.

Known fact that his students are building their own reality. Student has actually had a set of ideas and experiences that form the cognitive structure of the continuation of knowledge and their thinking patterns. To help students develop concepts or new knowledge, the teacher should take about existing cognitive structures available to them. If the new term has been adapted and absorbed to become part of their strong hold, then the new framework of some form of knowledge can be fostered. This is sometimes referred to constructivism.

C. Rogers, one of the exponents of experiential learning – the tenets of
which are inextricably related to, and congruent with, those of constructivism – made the distinction between cognitive learning, which he deemed meretricious, and experiential learning, which he considered significant. For him, the qualities of experiential learning include:
• personal involvement;
• learner-initiation;
• evaluation by learner; and
• pervasive effects on learner (see the web document)

Moreover, curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that students
can build upon what they have already learned. In short, the principles that permeate Bruner’s theory are the following (see Bruner, 1973):
• Instruction must be commensurate with the experiences that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
• Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily understood by the student (spiral organization).
• Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation (going beyond the information given).

Objectivist View Constructivist View
Knowledge exists outside of individuals and can be transferred from teachers to students. Knowledge has personal meaning. It is created by individual students.
Students learn what they hear and
what they read. If a teacher
explains abstract concepts well,
students will learn those concepts. Learners construct their own knowledge by looking for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read, and see based on their previous learning and habits. Students who do not have appropriate backgrounds will be unable to accurately “hear” or “see” what is before them.
Learning is successful when
students can repeat what was
taught. Learning is successful when students can demonstrate conceptual understanding.

Learning in view of Constructivist-leaning students as an object to make learning active and more developed in addition pengatahuan in children. Neither of the above can be realized as the world’s children as one of the characters was initiated education of children “play is children’s work”, the teacher will come naturally drift into the atmosphere of playing children. Pembelajaranya material must be adjusted to the child’s condition is not a principle tabularasa who viewed the child as an empty object.

I hope Education Curriculum in Indonesia have started to adapt to this situation to develop and practice the theory of leaning on the students, although in reality on the ground, this theory is less successful to be implemented, mainly to adjust the physical state of knowledge and media in accordance with this principle.

Government through the shaded area of educational institutions should begin to open with the current situation. With its KTSP can not trust the weight carried to the teachers as implementers of learning that directly face to face with their students. With attention to adequate facilities and learning process will be successful course with the support of various parties in order to attain goals – lofty ideals of education

 

psychology of education

Learning & memory

Learning and memory are closely related concepts. Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge, while memory is the expression of what you’ve acquired. Another difference is the speed with which the two things happen. If you acquire the new skill or knowledge slowly and laboriously, that’s learning. If acquisition occurs instantly, that’s making a memory.

In psychology, memory is the ability of an organism to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory. During the late 19th and early 20th century, scientists have put memory within the paradigm of cognitive psychology. Experts believe that memory is a complex brain-wide process that does not only occur in one specific region of the brain. The process of memory begins with encoding, then proceeds to storage and, eventually, retrieval. In recent decades, it has become one of the principal pillars of a branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.

Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process,rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.

Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children play, experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact. Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children’s development, since they make meaning of their environment through play.

Adapted from the Encyclopedia of Psychology

 

 

psychology of education

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

In his 1958 dissertation, Kohlberg wrote what are now known as Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. These stages are planes of moral adequacy conceived to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas. Kohlberg proposed a form of “Socratic” moral education and reaffirmed Dewey’s idea that development should be the aim of education. He also outlined how educators can influence moral development without indoctrination and how public school can be engaged in moral education consistent with the Constitution.

His theory holds that moral reasoning,which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages – each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the last. In studying these, Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment that is far beyond the ages originally studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding considerably upon this groundwork, it was determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that its development continued throughout the life span, even spawning dialogue of philosophical implications of such research.

Kohlberg studied moral reasoning by presenting subjects with moral dilemmas. He would then categorize and classify the reasoning used in the responses, into one of six distinct stages, grouped into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. Each level contains two stages. These stages heavily influenced others and have been utilized by others like James Rest in making the Defining Issues Test in 1979.

 

 

 

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Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

In his 1958 dissertation, Kohlberg wrote what are now known as Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. These stages are planes of moral adequacy conceived to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas. Kohlberg proposed a form of “Socratic” moral education and reaffirmed Dewey’s idea that development should be the aim of education. He also outlined how educators can influence moral development without indoctrination and how public school can be engaged in moral education consistent with the Constitution.

His theory holds that moral reasoning,which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages – each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the last. In studying these, Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment that is far beyond the ages originally studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding considerably upon this groundwork, it was determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that its development continued throughout the life span, even spawning dialogue of philosophical implications of such research.

Kohlberg studied moral reasoning by presenting subjects with moral dilemmas. He would then categorize and classify the reasoning used in the responses, into one of six distinct stages, grouped into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. Each level contains two stages. These stages heavily influenced others and have been utilized by others like James Rest in making the Defining Issues Test in 1979.

 

 

 

 

Psychology of Education

Self-esteem: What you  probably don’t know, but need to

• Quick self-esteem 101 knowledge

I.            Self-concept

Its important to understand the differnce and what makes up the self-concept, so that how to increase self-esteem can be better understood. Like any attitude, self-esteem includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral components – described shortly. Self-esteem is a person’s positive or negative feelings of personal value or self-worth. In practice, the an interpendent whole.

II.            Baseline versus barometric self-esteem

Self-esteem is extremly stable throughout chilhood, but it also definitely goes up and down. That degree of variation will be more evident depending on how much you “zoom in” on a given period of time, but when looking at years instead of days, weeks, or even months, self-esteem is, on average, prety flat line. While studied show that people’s self-esteem scores are generally very stable from 8 – 18, they can also vary substantially on a day to day, week to week, or even month to month basis. A person’s stable sense of the self is often referred to as baseline self esteem, while the fluctuating sense of is called barometric sef-esteem.

III.            Future sense of self

Self-esteem does not differentiate between a lot of things it should. Knowing what a person’s future sense of self is helps other understand where the persons is headed. Often, such information is more valuable in predicting a person’s future than self-esteem. Self-esteem is a relatively poor predictor when it is appropriately combined with things like future sense of selfe and emotional intelligence. Changing a fiture orientation (hope) usually requires therapeutic  techniques in addition to improving the individual’s capabilities and their environments.

• Self-esteem: The real scoop

There are alot of people with high self-esteem. Mass muder, prisoners, gang members, and delinquent children all have higher self-esteem, on average, than people in the general population of a similiar age. While having a high self-esteem isn’t everything, having a low or even middling self-esteem definetly isn’t good. So, high self-esteem isn’t the exclusive club of success that many people give it credit for, but low to moderate self-esteem is certainly un healthy.

I.            Self-esteem programs that don’t work

To use schools as the example, there have been and are programs that attempt to increase self-esteem. Such programs have many, but not all, of these elements. It doesn’t work. With thourugh understanding of self-concepts, the fact that such things don’t work makes perfect sense.

II.            The problem with praise

If people praise lavishly for doing easy things, why should it make them want to do hard things?. Several studies confirm this thought. Artificially high self-esteem is dengerous. These people, when criticized, often become angry and aggresive. Conceited people get nasty when you burst their buble of self-love. Having a high self-esteem is unlikely to reduce violence.

III.            Notes from decades of self-esteem research

Roy Baumeister,Ph. D. Has conducted numerous examinations of self-esteem as well as carefully reviewed the self-esteem (concept) literature. Among all inthe field, he was choswn to write a prestigious review. A few relevant words on the topic at hand from a speech he gave about self-esteem are repeated.

IV.            Informal observation of campers’ self-esteem

Self-esteem it usually measured via a self-report questionnaire that has been carefully, scientifically developed. The reason it is done that way is because others tend to be poor predictors of in indiividual’s self-esteem. Profesionals can sometimes do well in assesing another persons’s self-esteems, but the self-report survey is the gold standard, because it works because it works best. Teacher and even parents are often not very good assessors, so I wanted to find out if counselors, supervisors and directors could do it. Thus, I conducted several studies.

• Influencing self-esteem: The reality and the challenge

I.            Study of self-esteem change and 37 camps

A meta-analysis is the cumulative examination of quantitative, scientifict studies in a mathematical manner. Just such a study was done of 37 different (conducted by different people, at different camps) sciencentific evaluations of camp’s ability to influence self-esteem. That was all the quality

II.            Improving Self-esteem

Up until this point, I’ve told you what self-esteem (concept) is, how difficult it is to influence baseline self-esteem, and that high self-esteem isn’t all that it has been cracked up to be. This list will be limited to areas that camps have some chance of influencing. It is true that parents who are authoriative and who themselves have hight self-esteem have children with high self-esteem, but conducting parent interventions, when necessary, is beyond the scope of most camps programs. However, camps can take away the point that counselors who are authoriative (see behavior management resource), who set firm limits and realistics expectations, and who are accepting, but not permissive, will have a better chance of helping children.

 

Teaching Assesment

1. Analysis about why needed?
Due to the strengths and weaknesses know the test items, so it can be done about the selection and revision of items, can Obtain information on the complete specification, so it will be Easier for the teacher Preparing the questions That will satisfy the examination requirements in Certain areas and levels, and be Able to find out issues contained in the grain problem. It could be to Obtain information about the items about making it possible to formulate some questions That parallel devices.

2. How to test different functions?
Function, improve the quality of each data item through empirical matter, knowing how much of each item or question may detect distinguish the ability of Who Learners have been taught by the teacher understands.
The trick,
Daya Beda (DB)=(KA – KB)/0,5 x J
Description:
KA: The number of participants in the group (about 30%, based on the ranking score total) who answered correctly
KB: The number of participants in the group (about 30%, based on the ranking score total) who answered correctly
J: The total number of participants for the test group and the group

3. Qualitative and quantitative differences?
• Qualitative Analysis
Be Carried out writing about the written test, deeds and attitudes. Any questions are Reviewed in terms of material, construction, language / culture. Techniques used:
Moderator techniques That every grain of matter is Discussed together with experts Such as teachers’ miraculous, the reviewers are welcome to comment / improv on the Knowledge Possessed by the court reporter noted, this technique requires a long time to discuss every point matter.
Panel techniques are after in terms of material, construction, language / culture. In the early stages of reviewers working independently in a place That is not the same, welcome to improving the text directly on the matter and give his comments and assign a value to each question item.
• Quantitative Analysis
Based on empirical data are based, are used to objectively test the approach in classical and modern approaches. Classically reviewers point about through information from the answers of students, the excess is inexpensive, can be Carried out daily using a computer with a fast, simple.

4. How to test the validity and reliability testing?
Validity
• content validity, content validity testing is through statistical analysis, but using rational analysis.
• construct validity, construct validity testing is necessary statistical analysis, a more simple approach to multi-trait multi-method.
• The validity of criteria Estimate the validity of the analysis was done by using korelasional. But, not all the validity of the approach requires statistical analysis.

Reliability
• By way of test and retest (retest)
• With two parallel tests and the scores of both tests correlated with one another.
• With a half-way split (halved)
• The formula KR-20 (kuder-Richardson 20), statistical knowledge is required.

5. What is the validity and reliability?
The validity of the accuracy of the measure which is owned by an item to measure what it should (Sudjono, A.2001).
Reliability (steady) tests measure the ability to deliver a constant or steady measurements. Reliability is the stability measure, in the sense that the gauge is reliable or has a regularity result.

6. How to improve the validity and Reliability?
Improve the reliability can be improved by multiplying grain items, with reason that statistically the number of items that will increase the reliability of many measuring instruments.

 

Teaching Assesment

Portfolio
Portfolio is a collection of personal information which is a record and documentation of one’s achievements in education. Portfolio starting from the report card / diploma to other documents such as certificates, awards plaque, and others as evidence of achievement of an education or courses. Portfolio is useful for someone accreditation experience, job search, continuing education, submission of a certificate of competence, and others. Portfolio is seen as a collection of all outcomes and student achievement. After collected and selected documents that led to personal reflection. This assessment is considered part of education research is the assessment of alternatives in the modern world and far more reliable and valid than the default judgment.

Portfolio is a collection of procedures and information about the development of students’ skills through a portfolio, where the collection of information is done formally by using certain criteria, for the purpose of making a decision on the status of students.

The portfolio is used, because of dissatisfaction with the use of standard tests (the tests traditionally used to measure the progression study) is considered not capable of displaying a student’s ability as a whole.

 

psychology of education

Cognitivism

·         What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivsm means through interaction and self-cognition development to acquire knowledge, and concern about what learner know and how to use efficiency way to processing information.
Cognitivism is a theory the which attempts to answer how and why people learn by attributing the process to cognitive activity. This theory Followed the behaviorist school of thought. The cognitivists’ quarrel was with the behaviorists focus on observable That Their behavior did not account for what was going on in the mind.

·         Who are the export name?
Piaget and Vygotsky

·         Mention 2 explain theirs theory about cognitive development?

Piaget
Piaget divided schemes that children use to understand the world through four main periods are correlated with and more sophisticated with age:

• Sensorimotor period (years 0-2)
• preoperational period (ages 2-7 years)
• Concrete operational period (years 7-11)
• The period of formal operations (ages 11 years to adult)

 

Development process, An individual will gain schemes interact in their environment. Schemes include:

category of knowledge that helps in interpreting and understanding the world.

Schematic describing the actions of both mentally and physically involved in understanding or knowing something.

So in view of Piaget, the scheme covers both categories of knowledge and the knowledge acquisition process.
For example, a child may have a scheme of the kind of animal, such as cats. If the child’s early experiences related to the Angora cat, child may assume that all cats are soft, white. One time, a child might see a bobcat. The child will need to modify the scheme which he had before about the cats to enter this new type of cat.
Assimilation is the process of adding new information into existing schemes. This process is subjective, because one would tend to modify the experience or information obtained in order to enter into a pre-existing scheme. In the example above, see a canary and give him the label “cat” is an example of the animal assimilates the boy cat scheme.
Accommodation is another form of adjustment that involves the conversion or replacement of the scheme as a result of new information that is incompatible with the existing scheme. In this process may also occur the appearance of a completely new scheme. In the example above, see the bobcat and change the schema of the cat before giving the label “cat” is an example of the scheme to accommodate the animal’s cat boy.
Through the adjustment process, the system is changing and evolving one’s cognition that can increase from one stage to the top. Adjustment process is carried out an individual because he wanted to achieve a state of equilibrium, namely a state of balance between much cognitive structure with environmental experience. Someone will always try to be a state of balance is always achieved by using the above adjustment process.
Thus, a person’s cognition develops not because of receiving knowledge from outside the person passively but actively construct knowledge.

 

Vgotsky
Vgotsky theory emphasizes the sociocultural learning. The core of Vygotsky theory of learning is the emphasis on the interaction between the internal aspects and external aspects of the social environment. According to the theory of Vygotsky, cognitive function comes from the social interaction of each individual in the concept of culture.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky term for tasks that are too difficult to master their own children, but that can be mastered with the guidance and assistance of adults or children who are more skilled.

Kontrukivis social theory builds upon the development of Vygotsky made by the lev. Vygotsky emphasized the social environment which helped the development of a child. For Vygotsky, the culture is very influential in shaping children’s cognitive strcutur. Which foster children are not only teachers, but watch the kids are more mature. Vygotsky put forward the concept of the zone of proximal development. There are four basic principles in the application of the theory of Vygotsky, namely:

learn and develop the social and collaborative activity

a more adult can be a guide in developing curriculum and lesson

learning in schools must be in a meaningful context, should not be separated from the children’s knowledge built into their real world

experiences outside of school children should be linked to their experiences in school.

 

·         Please, Explain the impact of theirs our theories in education (school)?

Piaget.
Impact of Learning curriculum, educators must plan developmentally appropriate curriculum that increases students’ conceptual and logical growth.
Teachers should emphasize instruction students learn by experience or interaction with the surrounding environment (play). Instructors should consider the role of basic concepts, such as object permanence, play in shaping the cognitive structure.
Implications of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in learning is:

The language and the way children think differently from adults. Therefore, the teacher taught in a language appropriate to the child’s way of thinking.

Children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment. Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.

Materials to learn new children should be felt but not unfamiliar.

Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of development.

In the classroom, children should be given the opportunity to talk and discussion with friends.

The introduction and recognition of the role of children is important in self-initiative and active involvement in learning activities. Piaget in the classroom, so the presentation of the material (ready made) are not emphasized, and children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment.

No emphasis on practices that are directed to make the kids like the adults in his thought.

Acceptance of individual differences in the progress of development, Piaget’s theory assumes that all children develop through the same developmental sequence, but they get it at different speeds.

according to the constructivist learning is done by focusing the child’s thinking or mental processes, not just on the results and prioritize the role of students in learning activities and understand the individual differences in the progress of development that could have been affected by the intellectual development of children.

 

Vygotsky
Impact study that Vigotsky

the child’s mind must be understood from the socio-cultural background and history.

Build knowledge of the child must be based on play and games.

teaching methods that match the characteristics of early childhood learning in terms of approximation theory by Vygotsky are: Play, giving assignments, demonstrations, frequently asked questions, gave poetry, experimental, telling story, field trips and dramatization.

Because it is one of a series of cognitive development process, the evaluation should be undertaken with the hope (the measure of success) the child is different so the evaluation is based on different measures of success. Can be determined through evaluation of the level of achievement of objectives.

In the learning process, teachers should view the learning outcomes of children from different angles the whole psychological performance and thorough, both in terms of cognitive, Behavioristic (behavior) or in terms of cognitive humanistic.from teachers should be able to choose methods and media appropriate to the cognitive development of children , so that learning outcomes can be achieved in accordance with the expected goals.

 

 

Teaching Assesment

Eight Steps to Meaningful Grading.
My opinion is at its core Grading Meaningful Learning Moving from Traditional grading to standards-based grading.
At this stage many of the changes that occur in every lesson. When the two principles are combined then it would be better at learning. But, always depends on the teacher who teaches students in teaching, because the characteristics of different teacher.
In the Traditional Grading was more concerned with the assessment of all aspects of individual behavior, the Middle Semester Tests, Nor Semester Tests. In Standard-Based Grading is only concerned with End Tests only.

• Step # 1.
Educate your self. Stressing on Standards-based Grading, which focused on test results.

• Step # 2.
Do not journey alone into unfamiliar water. Step two is, in my opinion, it took in a partner.

• Step # 3.
Chart a course. Having a good plan, such as make RPP, Diagram Learning, and Filtering material that is considered important.

• Step # 4.
Organize instruction. Having a sense that still follows the pattern of learning with organized.

• Step # 5.
Practice comes first. The students are still emphasized in the exercises which have inidividu consciousness on itself, the results were not assessed.

• Step # 6.
Evaluate the performance. Need to eliminate common points that are not standard, such as student neatness, propriety students.

• Step # 7.
Gives second chances. The material taught must be understood, if not understand it will repeat it until it is properly understood.

• Step # 8.
Keep records. Making Progress on each individual student and must know the actual changes in behavior.

 

Behaviorism

Behaviorism

Learning Theory according to Behaviorism

• Based on the Behaviorism, there are three theories of learning which you have to learn for the process of learning at the Elementary School:

(1)   Respondent Conditioning,

(2)   Operant Conditioning, and

(3)   Observational Learning or Social-Cognitive Learning.

1. Respondent Conditioning

• Pavlov (1849-1936) introduced the theory of respondent conditioning, which was based on the idea that behavior is actually a response which is observable as well as predictable.
• Guy R. Lefrancois (1985) explained that a particular condition (called stimuli) can affect  individuals and can lead to a response which is desirable.
• Pavlov had learned  that a stimulus (which was done unconditionally) would spontaneously produce a response. A given stimulus will cause a reflex action  or behavior of the respondent, which is beyond one’s conscious control.

 

2. Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner (1954) , a proponent of  a learning theory, stated that learning produces a change of behavior which is observable, while behavior and learning are changed by the environment. Skinner’s theory is called Operant Conditioning.
•  A stimulus acts as a trigger for a response, and the consequence of a stimulus  can be positive or  negative, but both will serve as reinforcement.